2.1 The history of time measurement
It can not be established reliably when awareness of the flow of time occurs, or with certainty who can determine when and when it began to measure and record time intervals. It is assumed that the megalithic civilizations of the prehistoric age used simple calendars based on the apparent movement of the Sun and the Moon, that is, the spring equinox and moonlight [21] and [22]. It is certain that during the Neolithic and Bronze Age stone objects and sculptures of a circular shape were built (Stonehenge [23]) and presumed to be used as calendars for primitive measurements of longer time intervals and prediction of emerging seasonal events - equinox and solstice. Awareness of time, once awakened, has always been based on a strong intuition of the equilibrium of the time flow. On this intuitive performance, all measurements of time, from the prehistoric age,to this day.
Written history [24], [25], proves that ancient civilizations performed caring and extensive observations and recordings of cyclical movements of celestial bodies and thus created rather precise calendars. These calendars were used to predict the date of seasonal astronomical events significant for the planning of agricultural works, war hikes, construction projects and other activities essential for the successful organization of the state and society. Except for calendars, which were measured by long, secular, time intervals, Ancient Egypt used sunny timepieces for measuring shorter, daily intervals of time. To measure time during the night, special devices were used to observe the apparent movement of stars or the transition of a series of stars through a meridian site. Apart from the above mentioned devices, the ancient Egyptians also used water clocks [26],by which the flow of time was measured by approximately uniform flow of water. The recording of time intervals in a sixty-sized number system is exactly the maturity of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.
Ancient Greece and Rome (300 BC - 500 AD) promote the achievements of the ancient Egyptians. At that time, mathematically precisely constructed solar clocks were used [27], [28]. The Roman architect, Marko Vitruvie Polio, in the section "On Architecture" [29], analyzes in detail the movement of the shadow of the gnomon and describes the variation of the methods and methods of constructing the solar clock. Water climes (klepsiders) become a complex hydro-mechanical device with different methods of improving the accuracy of time interval measurements. In 50 BC, astronomer Andronikos of Cyrus (Andronicus of Cyrrhus) builds in Athens the Wind Tower and supplies it with a sunny clock, a klepsidor, and a windshield [30]. The klepsidra is known (Figure 1), which is 3 years p.n.e. constructed an inventor, mathematician and father of pneumatics, Ctesibius of Alexandria (Ctesibius of Alexandria).
Figure 1 Klepsidra Ktesibi of Alexandria [31]
For the recording of secular time intervals, Stara Greece uses solar and lunisolar calendars, while the old Rome is solely solar [28]. When it comes to timing instruments, Stara Persia will remain remembered for high precision clups, which can be compared with the accuracy of modern mechanical timers. In addition to water clocks, weather in ancient Persia was also measured by astrolabs (Figure 2) - instruments for determining the positions of stars of the Sun on the sky, or alternatively, the geographic length of the city and navigation [32].
Figure 2 Astrolab[33]
Similar to other ancient civilizations, and in ancient China, the flow of time was measured by solar clocks and climes of various constructions, complexity and level of accuracy [34]. The traditional lunar calendar, which is still used today in China, is an ancient Chinese civilization.
Civilizations of the Middle Ages inherit, use and perfect antique achievements and methods of measuring time. Sunglasses and clippers are still widely used, and with them ever more frequent use are timepieces - candles (clock candles), clocks - lamps (flame watches) and sand clocks. The idea is everywhere the same: roughly evenly combustion of wax and oil, that is, the emptying of sand from the glass container is read out on suitably constructed rocks, thus recording the flow of time. Clock candles are mentioned for the first time in China, around 520, for the measurement of time during the night [35]. In Europe, during the era of Anglo-Saxon King Alfred the Great (849-899), we use satin candles, carefully weighed masses and diameters. The most famous Muslim mechanic,Budiuzaman Al-Jazari (1136-1206) constructed sophisticated mechanical timepieces with dials and poles whose work was based on measuring the mass of the burning candle [36]. The skill of building sunny watchmakers, inherited from the ancient times, is especially perfected by Muslim inventors, mathematicians and astronomers in the Middle Ages. Thus, Arab astronomer Ibn Al Satyr (Ibn Al-Shatir, 1304-1375), the first explains the characteristics of the equatorial sundial and construct, in gnomonic projection, the famous horizontal sundial (replica in figure 3), in the northern minaret of the Umayyad Mosque [37].the first explains the characteristics of the equatorial solar clock and constructs, in the gnomonic projection, the famous horizontal sunny clock (replica in Fig. 3), on the northern minaret of the large mosque in Damascus [37].the first explains the characteristics of the equatorial solar clock and constructs, in the gnomonic projection, the famous horizontal sunny clock (replica in Fig. 3), on the northern minaret of the large mosque in Damascus [37].
Figure 3 Replica of Al-Shatira's sunny clock in Damascus [37]
From the mid-15th century, the concept of equatorial sunshine begins to apply in Europe. Italian astronomer Giovani Padovani (Giovanni Padovani, born 1512) publishes a 1570s discussion of sunny clocks in which he gives instructions for their construction on horizontal and vertical levels. Similar to this work, Italian astronomer and mathematician Giuseppe Biancani (Giuseppe Biancani, 1565-1624) published the year 1620 a book on the construction of various types of sunshine timers. Sandy clocks begin to be used in the 11th century, first of all for measuring time and navigation on ships, then in everyday life, cooking, in churches, monasteries, manufaktures, etc. They are the first instruments for reliable and precise measurement of short time intervals , simple design and easy maintenance.It is also noted that the Portuguese sailor Ferdinand Magelan (Ferdinand Magellan, 1480-1521) used 18 sands of clocks (Figure 4) on each ship during the famous maritime expeditions [38].
Figure 4 Sand clock
The middle ages also show the appearance of the first mechanical watch with gears and primitive speed regulators. In constructing such timers, Chinese engineers - early medieval constructors have been particularly emphasized as described in papers [39] and [40]. Ji Xing (683-727), a Chinese engineer, astronomer and mathematician, is building an astronomical clock with a primitive water-powered mechanism. In 976, the astronomer and military engineer Zang Siksung (X century) constructed a watch with a living, which activated the bell in the clock tower every 15 minutes. Su Song (1020-1101), a mathematician, astronomer, cartographer and horologist, builds an astronomical watch with a breakthrough, a reinforcing sphere and a mechanism for outbursts, and sound advertising of the past hours. Izvan Kine, the construction of complex mechanical timers with speed regulators,bells and outbursts emerged during the 11th and 12th centuries in Damascus and Baghdad. The first clock with an epicicular planetary transmission mechanism, whose complexity was surpassed only in the 14th century, was built by the Andalusian mathematician and astronomer Al Muradi in the 11th century [41].
In medieval Europe, the first watchmakers were monks in order to more effectively organize life and work within the monastery, by accurately measuring the time, as evidenced by 11th-century notes [42]. Giovanni de Dondi, 1318-1899, Italian physicist, engineer and professor of astronomy in Padua, first publishes a detailed description of the mechanical clock in the Il Tractus Astarii in 1364 [43]. Except for Padua, significant examples of medieval mechanical watchmakers were built in Milan (1335), Straussburg (1354), Lund (1380), Ruane (1389), Moscow (1402), Prague (1462) and Venice (1499), Figure 5.
Figure 5 The clock in Venice, 1499.
The rest is recorded in the second volume of the Russian illustrated ten-volume yearly (Lys's Letopisnyj vvod) from the second half of the 16th century that the Serbian monk Lazar Hilandarac (Lazar Crnorizac) constructed the first mechanical public watchmaker in Russia in 1404 (Figure 6) [44] [45]. For the history of Serbian time measurement, it is important to note that the oldest preserved Serbian watch is located in the Studenica Monastery, which is carved along the southern portal of the Church of the Holy Virgin.
Figure 6 Serbian monk Lazar shows the Great Prince his watch [45]
The key feature of the mechanisms of all these and other medieval timers is the presence of the primitive controller of the "verge & foliot" (Figure 7) which is supplied with a crown point (pos. 5) with teeth (item 3) and a spindle (item 6) with pallets (item 4), regulates the travel of the clock mechanism by periodically changing the direction of rotation of the balance lever. On the spindle there is a lever (item 1) with two of them (item 2).
Figure 7 Crown wheel, spindle and balancer [46]
The balance lever is not an oscillator and does not have a fixed oscillation period, but regulates the travel of the timer mechanism solely by its own inertia. This invention relates to the year 1273 and attributes it to the French constructor Vilars Dehonekort (Villard de Honnecourt, XIII century) [47]. Most medieval timepieces do not have minute handles, but astronomical watches show the geocentric daily and annual sunsets in the orthographic or stereographic projection of the heavenly arch. The first mention of a minute point was recorded in one manuscript from 1475, and the second hand appeared for the first time in Germany, during the 15th century [47]. Timepieces with weights, outbursts and walkers of the type "verge & foliot" were also known in the Ottoman Empire. One such clock mechanism is described by engineer Taki Al Din (Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf,1526-1585) in the technical tract on mechanical timers from 1556.
The turning point in the development and improvement of time measurement took place in 1656, when Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens (Christiaan Huygens, 1629-1695) constructed the first watch with a pendulum and a spiral spring watch.
Figure 8 Christian Heagens (1629-1695) [48]
During the entire Middle Ages, watchmakers were built mainly as public, tower and were supplied with massive mechanisms of great dimensions. However, the late Middle Ages also recorded the appearance of hand and pocket watchmakers. The first portable timer, the so-called. The Nuremberg egg (fig. 9), which could be worn in a pocket or purse (taschenuhr), was constructed in Nuremberg by watchmaker Peter Hennein (Peter Henlein, 1485-1542) [50].
Figure 9 Nirnbeck egg, around 1550s
This one and timekeepers similar to him from the same period (mid 16th century) had spring propulsion and were not supplied with an oscillator, but rather by a walker of the type "verge & foliot". Due to the extremely small accuracy (the walk was a few hours a day), they were used more as fashion details and status symbols, and less as instruments for measuring time. Only after Hajgens's invention of the balancing point with spiral spring 1656-1657. Pocket and manual clocks become reliable precision timers, and in the following centuries, they are more perfect, more popular and more important in everyday life.
Since the 17th century, the history of time measuring instruments has been the most important part of the history of the development of the average - impulse mechanisms. The "verge & foliot" speed controller conditions huge pendulum oscillation amplitudes (even over ± 50 °), which significantly increases the impact of a circular error on the total drop of isohronism [46]. It was precisely the need to reduce the amplitude of the pendulum vibrations that was the main reason for the introduction of a new type of regulator in the construction of the timer. It is a reciprocating wheel or anchor controller, whose design was explained by English watchmaker William Clement (1633-1704) and British scientist Robert Hook (1635-1703), in 1670. That same year, the watchman Joseph Knib (Joseph Knibb, 1640-1711) built the first watch with the Clement-Huke boiler in Oxford.The main characteristic of the reverse twist is the absence of a pulse separation from the average function. Both are realized on the same impulse-average surfaces of the anchor palette, only at different stages of the oscillation period of the pendulum. Further improvement of the wheel regulators, perhaps most important in the entire history of science and the skill of building timers, was accomplished by Tomas Tompion (Thomas Tompion, 1639-1713), Fig. 10, the father of British horology, according to the idea of mathematicians and astronomers Richard Towneley, 1629-1707, in 1675.perhaps the most significant in the history of science and the skill of clock construction, was accomplished by Tomas Tompion (Thomas Tompion, 1639-1713), Fig. 10, the father of British horology, according to the idea of mathematicians and astronomers Richard Towneley, 1629-1707, in 1675.perhaps the most significant in the history of science and the skill of clock construction, was accomplished by Tomas Tompion (Thomas Tompion, 1639-1713), Fig. 10, the father of British horology, according to the idea of mathematicians and astronomers Richard Towneley, 1629-1707, in 1675.
Figure 10 Tomas Tompion (Thomas Tompion, 1639.-1713.) [51]
This is the so-called invention. peaceful, impulsive mechanisms, which constructively and functionally separate the impulse from the average function. George Gray (Honorable George Graham, 1673-1751), in Figure 11, Tompion's pupil and the once-great Great Master of the Honored Timbers of London, perfected the invention in 1715 and enabled his massive application.
Figure 11 George Graham (George Graham, 1673.-1751.) [48]
In addition to the Graham's quiet steering wheel regulator, the same class includes many other impulse mechanisms. Let us mention the names of some who are built into stationary (tower and wall) timepieces: Amman-Lepo's (Amant-Lepaute 1741, 1750), Brokó (Achille Brocot 1849), a needle-pallet mechanism; as well as the names of still regulator for mobile (hand-held and pocket-) clocks: Tompionov cylinder (Tompion 1695) shown in Figure 12, "duplex" (Pierre Le Roy, 1748) and "virgule" (Antoine Lépine Jean 1780.).
Figure 12 Tompion's cylinder barrier
Further development of the walk regulator was achieved by designing the so-called. free, average-impulse mechanisms. The present invention proceeds precisely from the idea that the impulse and the average function are completely released from the direct impact of the drive, or that the oscillator itself be as free as possible from any influence of the regulator. The realization of the first principle led to the construction of the so-called. gravity-based pulse mechanisms, and from the other, the technical solutions of chronometric regulators and the so-called. English and Swiss free ancestors with an anchor. The first gravity walker was constructed by English watchmakers Tomas Madge (Thomas Mudge, 1715 - 1794) and Alexander Kaming (Alexander Cumming 1732 - 1814) in 1766 [46]. The invention is perfected by Henry Kather (Henry Kather, 1777-1835) around 1830, and Dž. M.Bloxam (James Mackenzie Bloxam) around 1850. However, the realization of these conceptual solutions was hampered by the unstable behavior of their average function, known as "roughening" or "bouncing" (approximate tripping, nem galoppieren). This significant problem was finally solved by the great British horologist and lawyer Edmund Beckett Denison, 1st Baron Grimthorpe, QC, 1816-1905, (Figure 13), the invention of the famous "double three-stroke gravity prevention", (Fig. 14), which was incorporated into the mechanism of the clock "Big Ben" in 1856. It still regulates the journey of the Great Westminster Clock with exceptional accuracy and reliability [52].
Figure 13 Edmund Beckett Denison (Edmund Beckett Denison, 1816.-1905.) [52]
Figure 14 Double triangle gravitational barrier [52]
An English free ancestor with an anchor, characteristic of pointed points at the center point, was constructed by Englez Tomas Madge in 1757, by French watchmakers Abraham Bréguet (Abraham-Louis Bréguet, 1747-1823, Figure 15) and Robin (Robert Robin, 1742-1999) [53].
Figure 15 Abraham Bréguet (Abraham-Louis Bréguet, 1747-1823)
Swiss freeway regulator with anchor, which differs from the English variant only in the shape of a tooth of the average point, was created around 1910, and because of its simplicity, today it has the widest use in the mechanisms of hand and pocket watches. The first naval chronometer, Fig. 16, was constructed in 1730 by John Harrison (John Harrison 1693-1776), in which he incorporated one version of a counter-rotational impulse mechanism - the so-called. "Grasshopper" and solved the famous problem of determining latitude at sea [20].
Figure 16 The first naval chronometer by John Harrison in 1730. [20]
The first freewheel chronometer was made by the French watchmaker Pierre Leo (Pierre Le Roy 1717-1855) in 1748. The invention was enhanced by the English watchmakers John Arnold (1736-1999, Fig. 17) in 1779, and Thomas Earnshaw (1749-1829, Fig. 18) in 1783, enabling the mass production of naval chronometers [48].
Figure 17 John Arnold (John Arnold 1736-1999)
Figure 18 Tomas Ernso (Thomas Earnshaw 1749.-1829.) [48]
Besides distinguishing all the features of free-impulse-free mechanisms, chronometric walk regulators have another, valuable property: the skillful design solution eliminates the need for lubrication! If not, the stability of the chronometer's course would be partly endangered by changes in the characteristics of the oil that changes its viscosity over time due to the oxidation and accumulation of impurities. For their choral discoveries, John Arnold and Tomas Ernso received great and well-deserved state awards, as it turned out that the technical solutions that were just embedded in chronometric, impulse-based mechanisms literally saved tens of thousands of seafarers 'and seafarers' lives!
At the end of this historical overview of the development of mechanical timers over centuries, it is necessary to point out two more mechanisms, from the class of free travel regulators. The first is Rifler's pulse mechanism Zigmund Rifler (Sigmund Riefler, 1847-1912, Figure 19, Deutsches Reichs Patent 1889), which was installed in astronomical watches of the highest accuracy between 1890 and 1965. The error of these piano timepieces was less than 10 milliseconds a day.
Figure 19 Zigmund Rifler (Sigmund Riefler 1847-1912) and his astronomical watch
The second free travel regulator is contemporary, patented in 2000 by Beat Haldimann (Beat Haldimann, 1964.- , Figure 20), one of the 20 most important horologists and watchmakers of today [54]. Haldimann's work and discoveries are the best proof that "the art, science and skill" of building mechanical watchmakers is not only alive,but to go through a new Renaissance [48].
Figure 20 Beat Haldimann (Beat Haldimann, 1964.-)
In the period from the 17th to the 19th centuries, other improvements were made to the clock mechanisms. Evard Berlow (Edward Barlow, 1639-1719), an English priest and mechanic, improves the existing version of the sound-tagging mechanism of the past hours (the so-called Outburst Mechanisms), and standardizes the modes of advertising for the past quarter-and-a-half hours (Westminster's grande sonnerie, German and Roman emergencies, passing strikes, etc.). From the time of the great watchmakers Tomas Tompson and George Gray, when made individually and by order, pocket watchmakers are becoming more perfect and accurate, so that from the middle of the 19th century they would move into mass and high standardized production in the famous Swiss manufactories and factories of precision mechanics. It is believed that the first wristwatch was made by Abraham-Louis Brega (Abraham-Louis Breguet,1747-1823) for Carolina Bonaparte, 1810. However, the popularity of watchmakers and their mass production began only after the First World War, during which they became standard equipment of officers and pilots.
During the 17th to 20th century, numerous achievements were made in terms of perfecting clock mechanisms oscillators. The most important innovation was certainly the compensation of the thermal dilatations of the pendulum and the system of the balance wheel - the spiral spring, the most damaging effect on the accuracy of the clock work. The first successful temperature compensation of the pendulum was accomplished by John Harrison around 1720, his invention of the so-called. lattice pendulum [17]. This compensation was realized by a series of rods - carriers of this pendant made of two different metals (for example, steel and brass) that suffer from thermal dilatations in opposite directions.The calculation of this compensation is done so that the resulting dilation of the last carrier is equal to zero. A similar solution Harrison built into the first naval chronometer, which he built in 1730. The bimetallic compensation of the thermal dilatations of the balancing point and the spiral springs was accomplished by the French watchmaker Pierre Le Roy (1717-1785) in 1765. Enriched by English watchmaker Tomas Ernsoa, it was used until the beginning of the 20th century.It was used until the beginning of the 20th century.It was used until the beginning of the 20th century.
In 1896, French - Swiss physicist Charles Edouard Guillaume, 1861-1938, discovered nickel and iron alloys - invar, anibal and elinvar, thereby eliminating the need for existing bimetallic compensation [55]. Namely, both the invar and the anibal have a slight thermal expansion, they are suitable for making the balance point, and the elinvar for making spiral springs because it suffers only a slight change in elasticity with temperature change. In 1933, engineer Dr. Reinhardt STRAUMAN (Reinhard Straumann, 1892-1967) creates an alloy of nickel, chromium, manganese, titanium, beryllium and iron - nivaroks (Nivarox) which by their qualities outweighed elinvar, and therefore from the middle of the 20th century, just one is used exclusively for the production of coil springs [56].
Since 2007, watch balances are predominantly made of glucidur (Glucydur), beryllium alloys, copper and iron having a slight thermal expansion, is non-magnetic and very hard. A widespread belief is that the future development of the watch industry will be supported in innovative solutions in the field of metallurgy and new materials. [57].
2.2 Time measurement units
Measurement of time flow, as well as the measurement of all other physical quantities, is based on defining, adopting and practical realization of certain units of measure. In this chapter, the history of units of time measurement, from ancient, ancient civilizations to the modern age, will be briefly exposed and discussed.
Historical sources testify that anti-peoples used the day as the natural and basic unit of time-consuming measures. In ancient Egypt, from 2000 BC, the day and night periods of the day were shared at 12 o'clock each, from where the first definition of the measure is likely to come as 1/24 of the day [35]. It differs from the contemporary because the duration of the ancient Egyptian clock was different for the day and night periods of the day and changed every day of the year [24]. The described way of daylight and daylight was kept in Europe until the late Middle Ages, during which the measurement of time in the sunshine was gradually replaced by mechanical. In the Old Babylon, from 300 BC, the day was divided into shorter time intervals, in accordance with the adopted sixty-six number system, to 60 parts, each of which was then re-divided into 60 parts, etc.It was also used to divide the day into 12 equal parts, which corresponds to the contemporary time interval of 2 hours (120 minutes) [25]. For astronomical observations, in the Old Babylon, a special unit was defined - the so-called. one time span that lasts 4 modern minutes, as well as a measure of 4/3 of a second, identical to Hebrew helek. However, no sixty division of the day was not used in Old Babylon as an independent unit of time. Nevertheless, the undeniable fact is that the modern standard division of hours in minutes and seconds is a direct consequence of the sixty-sized system defined in the civilization of Old Babylon. The peoples of Helen's civilization used the division of the day into six parts and represent the already mentioned heritage of Old Babylon. Astronomers Hipparchus (Hipparchus of Nicaea, 190-120 BC) and Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemy, 100-170 n.e.) apart from the mentioned division, define and use the middle clock as the 24th part of the mean solar (sun) day and the integer quarter of the quarter and a third of the mean hour [58]. The middle day and the middle class did not endure seasonal changes, but as constants, they represented the right standards of time measurement as the Old Babylonian and Hellenic civilizations did. These civilizations use an astronomical unit for a unit of one degree as 1/360 part of the mean solar day, or 4 minutes. (for 4 minutes, viewed from Earth, the Sun moves on the ecclemy of the heavenly arch for exactly 1 arc). All three mentioned civilizations used solar, lunar, and lunisolar calendars to measure and record longer time intervals.part of the mean solar (sun) day and the integer quarter of the quarter and a third of the mean hour [58]. The middle day and the middle class did not endure seasonal changes, but as constants, they represented the right standards of time measurement as the Old Babylonian and Hellenic civilizations did. These civilizations use an astronomical unit for a unit of one degree as 1/360 part of the mean solar day, or 4 minutes. (for 4 minutes, viewed from Earth, the Sun moves on the ecclemy of the heavenly arch for exactly 1 arc). All three mentioned civilizations used solar, lunar, and lunisolar calendars to measure and record longer time intervals.part of the mean solar (sun) day and the integer quarter of the quarter and a third of the mean hour [58]. The middle day and the middle class did not endure seasonal changes, but as constants, they represented the right standards of time measurement as the Old Babylonian and Hellenic civilizations did. These civilizations use an astronomical unit for a unit of one degree as 1/360 part of the mean solar day, or 4 minutes. (for 4 minutes, viewed from Earth, the Sun moves on the ecclemy of the heavenly arch for exactly 1 arc). All three mentioned civilizations used solar, lunar, and lunisolar calendars to measure and record longer time intervals.represented the right standards of time measurement as the Old Babylonian and Hellenistic civilizations did. These civilizations use an astronomical unit for a unit of one degree as 1/360 part of the mean solar day, or 4 minutes. (for 4 minutes, viewed from Earth, the Sun moves on the ecclemy of the heavenly arch for exactly 1 arc). All three mentioned civilizations used solar, lunar, and lunisolar calendars to measure and record longer time intervals.represented the right standards of time measurement as the Old Babylonian and Hellenistic civilizations did. These civilizations use an astronomical unit for a unit of one degree as 1/360 part of the mean solar day, or 4 minutes. (for 4 minutes, viewed from Earth, the Sun moves on the ecclemy of the heavenly arch for exactly 1 arc). All three mentioned civilizations used solar, lunar, and lunisolar calendars to measure and record longer time intervals.as well as lunisolar calendars for measuring and recording longer time intervals.as well as lunisolar calendars for measuring and recording longer time intervals.
Second, as a measure of time, is mentioned for the first time in Persia, approximately 1000 years of our era [32]. Their astronomers share a time period between two young months - for days, hours, minutes, seconds, thirds and quarters of seconds. In Central Europe, a similar division is also used by Roger Bacon (Rogerius Beconus, 1219-1292), an English philosopher and scientist [59]. In accordance with these historical facts, it can be concluded that the second was derived from lunisolar cycles, by trying to accurately measure the lunar and defining solar measures of time. When it comes to measuring and recording the duration of lunatics, it is necessary to briefly mention a week as a unit of time. Undoubtedly, this time interval has entered the European civilization through the Hebrew and Judaic traditions, and they again lead from the Old Babylonian lunisolar calendar which,using the intercalation day, synchronized the last day of the last week of the month with the appearance of the young month. The Hebrew nation began to use it for a week in the time of Israelite, in the 9th century BC. as a time interval independent of the cycle of moonlight. The Old Babylonian era was accepted by the Old Greeks in the 4th century BC, and the Roman Empire from the 1st to the 4th century BC. Through the process of Christianization, during the early Middle Ages, the week was also accepted by the European peoples as part of the Judeo-Christian tradition. In the next two thousand years, it became the unchanged standard time interval in most of the civilized world.as a time interval independent of the cycle of moonlight. The Old Babylonian era was accepted by the Old Greeks in the 4th century BC, and the Roman Empire from the 1st to the 4th century BC. Through the process of Christianization, during the early Middle Ages, the week was also accepted by the European peoples as part of the Judeo-Christian tradition. In the next two thousand years, it became the unchanged standard time interval in most of the civilized world.as a time interval independent of the cycle of moonlight. The Old Babylonian era was accepted by the Old Greeks in the 4th century BC, and the Roman Empire from the 1st to the 4th century BC. Through the process of Christianization, during the early Middle Ages, the week was also accepted by the European peoples as part of the Judeo-Christian tradition. In the next two thousand years, it became the unchanged standard time interval in most of the civilized world.
Second, as a basic measure of time, it was only established with the advancement of mechanical timers, in the second half of the 16th century. Namely, the second that represents the 86400th part of the day has become more precisely measurable only by defining the mean solar time represented by mechanical clocks, but by abandoning the real solar time by sunny clocks. Historical sources claim that the Swiss watchmaker Jost Bürgi (Jost Bürgi, 1552-1632) constructed the first mechanical watchmaker with a secondary one in 1579. In 1581, in his astronomical Observatory Uranienborg, Danish astronomer of Tycho Brahe (Tycho Brahe, 1546-1601) modified the timers to display seconds.
However, the presence of a second hand does not yet mean that the clock accurately measures the second time intervals. Namely, the insufficient technical perfection of the clock built at the end of the 16th century did not allow precise definition and reliable measurement of second intervals. On the timekeepers of that time, the secondary actors had a more decorative role. Only in 1644, French scientist Maran Mersen (1588-1648) calculated by calculating that the mathematical pendulum length of 994 mm, in the field of the earth is more difficult with a standard velocity g = 9,80665 m / s2, oscillates with a period of exactly 2 seconds . This knowledge opened the way for the production of mechanical pendulum timers with a pendulum that will not only be able to show the flow of seconds, but also accurately and reliably measure second time intervals. In 1670, English watchmaker William Clement,1638-1704) perfected the Haggens watch by supplying it to the pendulum with a period of 2 seconds. So, the second became a practical unit for measuring time only when real oscillators began to be built into mechanical circuits, with stable own frequencies of oscillation. In 1832, the German mathematician Gaus (Carl Friedrich Gaus, 1777-1855) first suggested a second as the basic measure of time in his system of measures "millimeter - milligram - second". In 1862, the British Scientific Association BSA formally proposed a CGS system of measures that was gradually replaced by the MKS system over the next 70 years. In both systems the measure of the second is adopted as the basic unit of time. During the 1940s, the ICC was accepted as an international system of measures, in which the second was defined as 1/86400 part of the middle solar day.Second, it became a practical unit for measuring time only when mechanical oscillators began to be installed in real time with stable oscillation frequencies. In 1832, the German mathematician Gaus (Carl Friedrich Gaus, 1777-1855) first suggested a second as the basic measure of time in his system of measures "millimeter - milligram - second". In 1862, the British Scientific Association BSA formally proposed a CGS system of measures that was gradually replaced by the MKS system over the next 70 years. In both systems the measure of the second is adopted as the basic unit of time. During the 1940s, the ICC was accepted as an international system of measures, in which the second was defined as 1/86400 part of the middle solar day.
Second, it became a practical unit for measuring time only when mechanical oscillators began to be installed in real time with stable oscillation frequencies. In 1832, the German mathematician Gaus (Carl Friedrich Gaus, 1777-1855) first suggested a second as the basic measure of time in his system of measures "millimeter - milligram - second". In 1862, the British Scientific Association BSA formally proposed a CGS system of measures that was gradually replaced by the MKS system over the next 70 years. In both systems the measure of the second is adopted as the basic unit of time. During the 1940s, the ICC was accepted as an international system of measures, in which the second was defined as 1/86400 part of the middle solar day.The German mathematician Gaus (Carl Friedrich Gaus, 1777-1855), first proposes a second as the basic measure of time in his system of measures "millimeter - milligram - second". In 1862, the British Scientific Association BSA formally proposed a CGS system of measures that was gradually replaced by the MKS system over the next 70 years. In both systems the measure of the second is adopted as the basic unit of time. During the 1940s, the ICC was accepted as an international system of measures, in which the second was defined as 1/86400 part of the middle solar day.The German mathematician Gaus (Carl Friedrich Gaus, 1777-1855), first proposes a second as the basic measure of time in his system of measures "millimeter - milligram - second". In 1862, the British Scientific Association BSA formally proposed a CGS system of measures that was gradually replaced by the MKS system over the next 70 years. In both systems the measure of the second is adopted as the basic unit of time. During the 1940s, the ICC was accepted as an international system of measures, in which the second was defined as 1/86400 part of the middle solar day.In both systems the measure of the second is adopted as the basic unit of time. During the 1940s, the ICC was accepted as an international system of measures, in which the second was defined as 1/86400 part of the middle solar day.In both systems the measure of the second is adopted as the basic unit of time. During the 1940s, the ICC was accepted as an international system of measures, in which the second was defined as 1/86400 part of the middle solar day. In 1956, the second was redefined as part of a medium solar (synodic or tropical) year for an appropriate epoch because it was noticed that the rotation of the Earth around its own axis was not uniform enough to be used as a standard for defining a unit of time. Since 1960, the duration of a mid-tropical year is no longer obtained from astronomical measurements, but from a budget from special formulas, which terminates an explicit link between the duration of one second and the duration of the day. Namely, the development of science, technology and technology reached such a high level in the mid-20th century, that the establishment of the definition of a unit of time at the speed of the Earth's rotation and revolution was no longer precise enough. The development of atomic timers during the 1950s brought in 1967 to the Thirteenth General Conference on Weights and Measures until the adoption of a new definition of a second. According to this definition,it represents a duration of 9,192,631,770 radiation times that corresponds to a quantum transition between two hyperfine levels of the baseline state of the cesium-133 atom. The definition of "atomic seconds" has established the International Atomic Time (TAI) as a coordinate standard of high precision time obtained by the arithmetic mean of time measures and maintains over 400 atomic clocks that have been installed in more than fifty national laboratories around the world over the past five decades. International Atomic Time is the basis of the Coordinate Universal Time (UTC) which is used to measure the flow of civilian time on Earth. During the seventies of the twentieth century, the relativistic gravitational influence of time dilation with a change in altitude to the flight of atomic timers was measured. In 1980.and the correction of this effect is formally introduced by calculating the time each atomic clock shows, with the corresponding local at zero altitude (universal, mean sea level level). Today, the relative error of measuring the frequencies of individual atomic clocks does not exceed a value of $10^{-15}$, and the national standards agencies maintain a network of atomic timers and synchronize them with an accuracy of $10^{-9}$ per day. Despite this high accuracy, atomic clocks continue to improve, so the latest, the so- optical watches, measures and maintain the operating frequency of coherent radiation in the optical region with a relative error of $10^{-18}$ [60].the relative error of measuring the frequencies of individual atomic timers does not exceed the value of $10^{-15}$, and the national standards agencies maintain a network of atomic timers and synchronize them with an accuracy of $10^{-9}$ per day. Despite this high accuracy, atomic clocks continue to improve, so the latest, the so- optical watches, measures and maintain the operating frequency of coherent radiation in the optical region with a relative error of $10^{-18}$ [60].the relative error of measuring the frequencies of individual atomic timers does not exceed the value of $10^{-15}$, and the national standards agencies maintain a network of atomic timers and synchronize them with an accuracy of $10^{-9}$ per day. Despite this high accuracy, atomic clocks continue to improve, so the latest, the so- optical watches, measures and maintain the operating frequency of coherent radiation in the optical region with a relative error of $10^{-18}$ [60].measures and maintain the operating frequency of coherent radiation in the optical region with a relative error of $10^{-18}$ [60].measures and maintain the operating frequency of coherent radiation in the optical region with a relative error of $10^{-18}$ [60].
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